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Boiler  Waters,  Scale,  Corrosion, 
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FURNACE   DRAFT; 

ITS    PRODUCTION 

BY 

MECHANICAL  METHODS, 

WILLIAM  WALLACE  CHRISTIE 

CONSULTING    ENGINEER,   MEMBER    AMERICAN    SOCIETY  OF 

MECHANICAL    ENGINEERS,   AUTHOR  OP  "CHIMNEY 

FORMULAE  AND  TABLES,"  "CHIMNEY  DESIGN 

AND  THEORY,"  AND   "BOILER-WATERS 

—  SCALE,    CORROSION,    FOAMING." 

SECOND  EDITION  REVISED. 


NEW  YORK: 

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23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STREETS. 

1906. 


COPYRIGHT,  1901, 
%ILLIAM  WALLACE  CHRISTIE. 

COPYRIGHT,  1906, 
D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY. 


PEEFACE. 


IN  presenting  this  monograph  to  the 
public,  I  make  no  claim  for  its  complete^ 
ness,  nor  of  my  infallibility,  but  take 
pleasure  in  giving  the  reader  some  facts 
concerning  mechanical  draft  in  a  handy 
form  for  ready  reference. 

Some  of  the  material  has  already  ap- 
peared in  an  article  which  I  prepared  for 
the  Engineering  Magazine. 

Credit  for  the  work  of  others  is  given 
as  far  as  possible. 

I  trust  that  the  book  may  be  read  as 
being  unbiased,  as  far  as  any  particular 
make  of  apparatus  is  concerned. 

The  rapid  sale  of  the  first  edition  of 
this  book  has  led  to  its  reissue  as  one  of 
the  Van  NostrancTs  Science  Series,  with 
a  few  corrections  and  additional  matter 
added. 

WILLIAM  WALLACE  CHRISTIE. 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  Nov.  1901. 


148734 


FURNACE  DRAFT. 


Its  Production  by  Mechanical  Methods. 


A  CHIMNEY  is  a  means  most  frequent- 
ly employed  to  provide  draft  for  the 
combustion  of  fuel  under  or  in  boilers 
or  other  heat  devices. 

It  provides  the  draft  by  means  of  the 
waste  heat,  or  a  waste  of  heat;  the  draft 
being  a  result  of  the  difference  in 
weight  of  a  column  of  comparatively 
cold  air  without,  and  a  column  of  com- 
paratively very  hot  air  within  the  chim- 
ney; the  writer  would  call  draft  pro- 
duced in  this  way  natural  or  static  draft. 

Draft  produced  by  mechanical  meth- 
ods as  in  the  case  of  a  blower,  or  steam 
jet,  could  be  termed  forced  or  dynamic 
draft.  It  is  dynamic  or  forced  draft 


6 


with  which  we  are  directly  concerned  at 
present. 

The  particular  method  of  producing 
draft  to  which  the  term  " forced  draft" 
is  or  has  been  applied,  is  that  which  em- 
ploys a  centrifugal  fan  which  forces  air 
in  a  closed  ashpit,  up  through  the  bed 
of  fuel,  the  gases  passing  out  of  a  short 
chimney.  This  method  is  not  used  for 
excessively  heavy  fires,  nor  in  large  boil- 
er units;  it  being  necessary  to  shut  off 
the  fan  before  firing  fresh  coal,  as  the 
air  forces  itself  through  the  fire  in  spots, 
unless  closely  watched,  giving  a  very  un- 
satisfactory combustion. 

Forced  draft  has  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing easily  installed,  and  that  no  specially 
cooled  bearings  are  needed  on  the  fan  as 
it  handles  cool  air. 

Forced  draft  is  regulated  in  part  by 
means  of  a  valve  or  hood  connection  to 
the  inlet  pipe  located  in  the  ashpit  of 
the  boiler,  having  a  rod  extending  to 
the  outside  of  the  setting  which  may  be 
used  to  open  or  close  a  flap  valve  as  con- 
ditions require. 


Induced  draft  is  a  system  much 
generally  used  than  "Forced  Draft;" 
the  fan  drawing  the  air  through  the  fire 
and  boiler  to  itself,  the  result-  is  more 
nearly  like  natural  draft  from  a  chim- 
ney, and  it  has  no  serious  effect  on  the 
fire,  nor  does  it  interfere  in  the  least 
with  charging  fresh  coal  while  the  fan. 
continues  to  run. 

The  high  temperature  of  the  escaping 
gases,  however,  necessitates  a  design  of 
fan  suited  to  the  purpose.  Especial  at* 
tention  must  be  paid  to  the  design  of  the 
journal  boxes  of  the  fan;  these  are  usually 
kept  cool  with  a  water  jacket,  a  device 
which  has  proven  all  that  is  needed  for 
the  purpose. 

While  fans  for  forced  draft  may  be 
made  of  cast  iron,  fans  for  induced  draft 
are  always  made  of  sheet  steel.  In  either 
instance  peripheral  discharge  fans  are 
used,  high  pressure  not  being  as  much 
needed  as  a  great  volume  of  air  at  a  mod- 
erate pressure. 


Fig.  i. 
Induced  Draft  Plant. 


9 


A  chimney  which  extends  at  least  10 
feet  above  the  roof  of 
the  building  containing 
the  fan  or  fans  is  used 
with  either  method  in 
order  to  prevent  fire, 
and  to  carry  the  gases 
so  high  as  not  to  be 
offensive  to  the  com- 
munity. 

Frequently  for  archi- 
tectural effect,  or  on 
account  of  local  regula- 
tions, the  chimney  is. 
made  higher;  and  again 
where  looks  are  of  no 
consequence  the  chim- 
ney may  be  omitted  al- 

^together. 

""  Another  system  that 
is  often  employed  is 
Forced-Induced  draft, 


BiasTNowie  Suspended  a  combination    of   the 
m  Brick  chimney.     ^wo  SyStems  mentioned 

^  "pig.  2  ab°Ve- 


10 

Still  another  system  is  Forced-Natural 
draft  in  which  a  centrifugal  fan  is  em- 
ployed to  furnish  the  air  necessary  to 
combustion,  also  to  regulate  the  same  to 
suit  the  steam  pressure  carried  in  the 
boiler;  a  chimney  being  used  to  produce 
the  draft  and  exhaust  the  gases  from 
the  furnaces. 

An  absolutely  air-tight  ashpit  is  not 
needed  with  this  method,  but  is  both 
desirable  and  necessary  with  "  forced " 
draft. 

A  steam  jet  in  the  chimney  or  flue, 
is  frequently  used  to  create  draft  or 
assist  and  increase  that  already  obtained 
by  the  heat  of  the  escaping  gases. 

The  large  quantity  of  steam  used  by 
the  [jets  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
made  in  the  boiler  plant  using  steam  jets 
will  be  considered  later. 

In  connection  with  a  chimney  to  assist 
in  exhausting  the  gases,  a  steam  blower 
(not  jet)  is  occasionally  used,  being  placed 
in  the  furnace  front  or  side  wall  of  a 
boiler  setting  haying  a  closed  ashpit. 


11 

As  is  the  case  with  the  jet,  the  blower 
is  a  large  consumer  of  steam.  The  ad- 
vantages of  mechanical  draft  as  com- 
pared with  natural-chimney-draft  are 
well  summed  up  by  Mr.  Jas.  Howden,  of 
England,  as  follows: 

1.  Complete  combustion  of  fuel  of  all 
qualities  under  conditions  in  which  com- 
bustion could  not  be  efficiently  obtained 
by  natural  draft. 

2.  The  power  of  regulating  with  ease 
the  amount  of  combustion  desired,  from 
zero  to  many  times  that  possible  by  nat- 
ural draft,  also  the  capability  of  main- 
taining the  fuel  in  the  furnace  incandes- 
cent  for  a   considerable    time   without 
appreciable  consumption. 

3.  A  great  reduction  in  the  size  or 
number  of  boilers  required  to  produce  a 
given  power,  and  the  capability  of  in- 
creasing the  power  in  steamships  far  be- 
yond that  now  obtainable  with  boilers 
worked  by  natural  draft. 

4.  Greater    economy    in     producing 
steam  from  the  following  causes: 


12 

(a)  From  more  complete  combustion 
of  fuel   than  is   attainable    by  natural 
draft  with  a  reduced  admission  of  air. 

(b)  From  the  higher  temperature  of 
the  furnace  arising  the  more  perfect  and 
higher  rate  of  combustion,  and  from  the 
air  supply  being  partially  heated  before 
entering  the  furnace. 

(c)  From  the  utilization  of  the  waste 
heat  of  the  escaping  gases. 

(d)  From  the  prevention  of  heat  from 
the  furnaces  and  ashpits  being  radiated 
into  the  stokehold. 

(e)  From  the  much  less  expenditure 
required  to  supply  the  air  of  combustion, 
from  a  fan  than  is  required  to  heat  a 
column  of  air  in  a  chimney,  to  obtain 
supply  by  natural  draft, 

(/)  From  preventing  a  cooling  down 
of  the  boiler  by  a  rush  of  cool  air  to  the 
furnace,  when  a  furnace  door  is  opened. 

5.  Less  discomfort  in  stoking,  the 
stokehold  fresh  and  cool  by  the  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  furnaces  being  pre- 


13 

vented,  and  the  fan  drawing  fresh  air 
into  it  continuously  independently  of 
ventilators. 

6.  The  complete  absence  of  the  great 
nuisance  of  smoke  in  the  use  of  steam 
power. 

7.  The     abolition    of    all    unsightly 
chimneys  in  town  and  country  now  nec- 
essary for  combustion  by  natural  draft 

The  readiness  with  which  one  of  these 
systems  may  be  adapted  to  any  of  the 
various  conditions  that  exist  is  a  point  in 
its  favor. 

The  convenience  of  the  outfits  leads 
to  their  adoption,  in  many  cases;  for  on 
short  notice — a  few  days  or  even  less — a 
forced  draft  outfit  may  be  ordered,  re- 
ceived and  installed.  Likewise  we  can 
as  readily  arrange  for  a  steel  chimney  of 
reasonable  diameter  and  height. 

Forced  draft  and  chimney  draft  may 
be  regulated  within  the  extreme  limits 
provided  by,  or  inherent  to  the  outfits 
themselves. 


14 

The  economy  in  burning  cheap  fuels 
is  an  inducement  offered  to  steam  users 
in  favor  of  forced  draft;  the  cheaper 
grades  of  fuel  may  also  be  burned  in  a 
properly  designed  boiler  furnace  using 
natural  draft. 

A  draft  required  for  the  efficient  com- 
bustion of  all  fuels,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  is  within  the  limit  of  that  pro- 
duced by  a  chimney  of  moderate  height, 
which  can  be  seen  from  the  accompany- 
ing tables. 

Draft  Required  for  Efficient  Combustion 

of  Fuels.* 

Inches  of  Water. 

Straw 0.20 

Wood 0.30 

"Sawdust 0.35 

Peat,  light 0.40 

Peat,  heavy 0.50 

Sawdust  mixed  with  small  coal  0. 60 

Slack,  ordinary : 0.6  to  0.9 

Steam  coal,  round 0.4  to  0.7 

Slack,  very  small 0.7  to  1.1 

Coal  dust 0.8  to  1.1 

Semi-anthracite  coal 0.9  to  1.2 

Breeze  and  slack  mixed 1.0  to  1.3 

Anthracite,  round 1.2  to  1.4 

Breeze  and  coal. dust  mixed. . .  1.2  to  1.5 

Anthracite  slack 1.3  to  1.8 

*  Dr.  R.  H.  Thurston. 


15 


This  Table  Compiled  by  the  Author  from  Actual  Test!. 


c*2 

S3 

2  *• 

S 

"  2  sj 

^5 

tt> 

»-  ^> 

M. 

'•SSij 
«,8S 

£b£§ 

||| 

Its6! 

||  j 

l«y 

«•;  W  cfl 

25  & 

jgjm 

§  V  6£*O 

"Sofe 

6 

O"*    :>. 

r1 

w 

Rice 

CoaL 

5 

ck. 

14.8 

0.88 

18.4 

0.41 

365 

133 

17.9 

0?54 

23.9 

0.51 

368 

133 

21.3 

l!lO 

332 

1.16 

638 

192 

21.5 

25.8 

1.01 
0:89 

tl     T>                 CL 

Run  of  Mine  Bit.  coal.       *£   J^ 

27.0 

1.04 

649 

0.16 

371 

8.33 

28. 

0.92 

*649 

0.15 

351 

-   52 

8.72 

28. 
Buckwh 

1.26 
eat  Coal. 

8.89 
•9.33 

0.21 
0.28 

414 
361 

6.04 
7.42 

16.4 

0  54 

12.13 

0.33 

444 

100 

6.15. 

16.7 

0.59 

•12.30 

0.31 

412 

105 

5.55 

19.8 

0.34 

•15.80 

0.38 

421 

125 

6.81 

19.8 
20.14 

0.37 
0.58 

16.35 
*1745 

0.36 
0.39 

470 
436 

150 
150 

4.93 

5.06 

22  3 
223 

0.87 
0.93 

1920 
•19.73 

0.42 
0.53 

455 
447 

170 

4.93 
5  76 

26.1 

0.96 

20.87 

0.51 

506 

170. 

4.96 

26.3 

1.23 

•23.86 

0.71 

490 

5.49 

27.3 

0.94 

26.55 

0.65 

526 

200 

4.63 

30.2 

1.10 

•27.32 

0.86 

523 

225 

4.53 

31.4 

1.00 

30.10 

0.62 

551 

4.43 

325 
32.9 

1.08 
0  83 

34.30 

0.67 

646 

240 

425 

454 

0.80 
1.68 

Anthracite  Tests  by  R  B.  Coxe—  Max.  Sizes. 

Relative  rates  of 

13.63 

0.375 

Oneida  Pea  £  in. 

Combustion. 

13.58 

0.5 

No.  1  Buck  9-1  6  in. 

Pea  Coal        100 

11.40 

0.625 

No.  2    .."      f  in. 

Buckwheat  .    85 

11.33 

1.04 

No.  3    ;*      |  in. 

Rice...            70 

9.44 

1,125 

Eckley%3-16    in.' 

*  Tubes  having  retarders,  Hor.  Tub.  Boiler  Tests.— 
Trans.  A  S,  M.  E.,  Vol.  17. 


16 


INITIAL  HEAT. 

According  to  Kerl,  the  initial  or  free 
heat,  or  temperature  to  be  reached  to  al- 
low the  particles  of  carbon  to  properly 
ignite  with  those  of  oxygen,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


SUBSTANCE 

DEGREES 

c. 

Fahr. 

Peat  

225 

295 
326 
360 

600-800 

437 
563 
619 

680 
1112-1472 

Pine    

Soft  Coal  

Charcoal  made  by  low  heat  . 
Charcoal  made  by  high  heat 

HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION. 

1  Ib.  C  to  C02  gives  8140  calories,  or 
14,650  B.  T.  U. 

1  Ib.  C  to  CO  gives  2474  calories,  or 
4450  B.  T.  U. 

1  Ib.   C  from  CO  to  C02  gives  5666 
calories,  or  10,200  B.  T.  U. 

1   Ib.    CH4   to   C02   pins  H20    gives 
13,305  calories,  or  23,950  B.  T.  U. 

[N.  E.  C.  M.  A.,  No.  58.— E.  B.  Coxe. 


17 

The  results  in  evaporation  of  water 
when  using  different  grades  of  small 
anthracite  coal  has  been  determined  by 
a  large  number  of  tests,*  giving  us  the 
following  averages : 


Buckwheat  

Ibs.  water  from  and 
at  212°  F. 
t 

per  Ib. 
coal 

per  Ib.  com- 
bustible 

8.77 
9.05 

8.74 
8.39 

11.07 
11.18 

11.19 
10.89 

Rice  (No.  2  Buckwheat). 
Culm  (pea,  buckw.,  rice, 
barley  and  dust)  

Barley  (No.  3  Buckwheat) 

Xot  from  same  mine. 

In  a  general  way  we  may  say  there  is 
no  difference  in  evaporative  results  when 
using  any  of  the  above  coals. 

The  rate  of  combustion  with  forced 
draft  may  be  increased  far  beyond 
25  Ibs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate 
per  hour,  which  is  about  all  that  is  de- 
sirable to  have  with  chimney  draft,  to  as 
much  as  120  Ibs.  and  even  more,  as  in 

*  N.  E.  C.  Mfrs.  Assn.  No.  58— Coxe. 


18 

locomotive  practice,  for  in  the  Purdue 
Tests  we  have  a  rate  of  240.8  Ibs.  report- 
ed, and  this  without  a  very  great  loss  in 
efficiency,  as  we  shall  see  later. 

One  of  the  large  installations  of  In- 
duced Draft  is  in  the  Electric  Power 
House,  59th  Street  and  East  Kiver 
[Power  Dec.  1897]  where  2  or  3  14-ft. 
fans  draw  the  gases  through  American 
Fuel  Economizers,  and  then  to  further 
reduce  their  temperature  and  remove  the 
soot,  etc.,,  the  gases  are  passed  about 
baffle  plates,  much  as  steam  is  sent 
through  a  separator,  and  then  in  a 
scrubber  from  which  they  emerge  at 
about  100  deg.  F. 

This  plant  has  a  short  steel  chimney 
just  sufficient  to  clear  the  roof  of  the 
buildings  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

The  space  occupied  by  centrifugal 
fans  is  often  that  above  the  boiler  set- 
ting, and  as  such  is  considered  of  no 
particular  value;  in  a  like  manner  steel 
chimneys  are  frequently  set  on  boiler 
settings  and  do  not  take  up  as  much 


19 

space  in  a  horizontal  plane  as  a  centrif- 
ugal fan. 

In  the  installation  of  the  steam  plant 
of  the  Lacombe  Electric  Co.,  Denver 
(Fig.  3),  not  only  is  the  forced  draft  ap- 
paratus occupying  room  away  from  the 
boilers,  but  is  of  necessity  under  cover 
of  a  steel  truss  roof.  Steel  chimneys  when 
located  out  of  doors  take  up  much  less 
space  than  in  this  lay-out,  and  while 
brick  chimneys  may  take  up  as  much 
room,  still  they  eliminate  the  roof  ex- 
pense, and  the  exterior  dimensions  of  the 
base  of  the  foundation  is  about  the  same 
in  brick  and  self-supporting  steel  chim- 
neys. 

Large  brick,  or  any  brick  chimneys 
cannot  be  moved  intact  as  readily  as  can 
steel  ones,  or  centrifugal  fans,  and  the 
portability  of  the  fan  is  a  point  that  has 
been  raised  in  its  favor. 

If  a  company  is  in  business  only  for  a 
few  months,  almost  any  draft  device  will 
do,  but  should  they  intend  to  continue  in 
business  for  a  longer  period,  portability 


20 

will  not  cut  much  of  a  figure  in  any  sys- 
tem of  draft  production. 


Fig.  3. 
Induced-Draft  Plant 

Lacambe  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Col 

If  the  rate  of  combustion  is  increased 
by  mechanical  methods,  so  that  we  ob- 
tain sufficient  evaporation  from  a  part  of 


21 

the  plant,  we  can  dispense  with  one  or 
more  of  the  boilers ;  the  increased  rate  of 
combustion,  however,  which  must  be  at- 
tained to  do  this,  will  naturally  give  us  a 
less  efficient  rate  of  evaporation  of  water 
per  pound  of  coal,  so  that  the  user  will 
need  to  decide  which  is  the  more  desir- 
able, to  get  the  most  out  of  the  coal  for 
its  cost,  or  the  most  out  of  the  plant  for 
its  first,  cost  only.  With  an  increased 
rate  of  combustion,  we  have  added  wear 
and  tear  on  all  parts  of  the  boiler;  this 
expense  is  also  to  be  considered. 

As  nearly  all  well  conducted  boiler 
plants  have  an  extra  boiler  or  two,  so  as 
to  allow  of  one  or  more  being  out  of 
commission  all  of  the  time  for  cleaning  or 
repairs,  there  is  no  advantage  in^having 
a  "smaller  boiler  plant." 

DAVIDSON'S  SYSTEM. 

A  system  of  forced  draft  invented  by 
Mr.  Davidson  of  Belfast  [Elec.  Times — 
London]  consists  of  a  cylindrical  box  of 
diameter  equal  to  the  furnace  fitted  on 


its  front,  from  which  cast-iron  tubes 
project  at  a  slight  declivity  over  the  fire, 
through  which  air  is  blown  over  or  into 
the  fire,  and  by  tubes  into  the  ashpit, 
the  air  in  it  is  also  kept  under  pressure. 

Tests  made  on  four  boilers  thus 
equipped,  at  a  large  manufacturing  plant 
showed 


A. 

B. 

Coal  used  during  working 
hours  

50  tons 

64£  tons 

Gallons  of  water  evaporated 
during  working  hours  .  .  . 
Evap.  per  Ib.  of  coal  

80000 
7  14  Ibs 

80000 
5  53  Ibs 

Cost  of  coal  per  week,  £.s.d. 

23.19.2 

17.14.9 

or  a  saving  of  25$  in  coal  bill  by  using  forced 
draft,  B,  over  natural  draft,  A.  (St.  Eng.,  v.  3, 
p.  250). 

The  late  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  probably 
more  than  any  other  man,  understood 
the  successful  burning  of  small  anthra- 
cite coal. 

In  a  paper*  before  the  New  England 
Cotton  Manufacturers'  Association  in 

*  N.  E.  Cotton  Mfrs.  Assn.,  No.  33,  p.  142. 


23 

1895  on  this  general  subject,  when  treat- 
ing of  steam-making  and  boiler  settings, 
he  gives  the  unavoidable  losses  of  com- 
bustion as  follows : 

"First. — The  heat  lost  by  converting 
into  steam  the  water  contained  in  the 
coal,  in  the  air  used  in  burning  it,  and 
that  formed  by  the  burning  of  the  hydro- 
gen and  heating  it  to  the  temperature  at 
which  the  gases  leave  the  stack. 

"Second. — The  heat  necessary  to  raise 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  formed  by  burning 
the  carbon,  the  nitrogen  present  in  the 
air,  and  the  sulphurous  anhydride,  that 
may  be  formed  by  burning  the  sulphur, 
to  the  stack  temperature. .  When  we 
have  perfect  combustion  there  will  also 
be  a  certain  amount  of  free  oxygen  in  the 
stack  gas,  which  must  also  be  heated  to 
the  same  temperature,  as  it  is  impossible 
not  to  have  a  certain  excess  of  air  when 
the  combustion  of  the  coal  is  complete 
or  nearly  so.  There  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  heat  lost  by  heating  the  ashes, 
which  are  taken  from  the  ashpit  at  a 


24 

temperature  above  that  at  which  the  coal 
enters  the  furnace,  and  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  nnconsumed  carbon  remain- 
ing in  the  ash  which  occasions  a  loss,  in 
many  cases  a  large  one.  The  latter  can, 
by  careful  firing,  be  very  much  reduced, 
but  can  never  be  entirely  eliminated. 
There  is  also  an  unavoidable  loss  occa- 
sioned by  the  radiation  from  the  boilers 
and  walls,  which,  by  careful  construc- 
tion, and  coating  the  plant  as  far  as  pos- 
sible with  non-conducting  materials,  may 
be  reduced,  but  never  eliminated. 

"The  avoidable  or  partly  avoidable 
losses  are : 

"First. — Those  due  to  incomplete 
combustion.  Too  large  a  proportion  of 
the  carbon  may  be  unconsumed  and  pass 
out  with  the  ash,  a  portion  of  the  carbon 
instead  of  being  burnt  to  carbonic  acid 
may  be  converted  only  into  carbonic  ox- 
ide, and  thus  69.62  per  cent,  of  the  heat 
units  in  the  carbon  be  lost,  a  certain 
amount  of  hydrogen  and  marsh  gas  may 
'  be  allowed  to  pass  out  of  the  stack,  and 


25 

all  the  heat  units  contained  in  them  be 
lost. 

"Second. — Loss  from  excess  of  air. 
While  theoretically,  to  burn  one  pound 
of  carbon  it  is  necessary  to  use  only  11.60 
pounds  of  dry  air,  yet  in  practice  this  is 
not  possible,  as  every  particle  of  oxygen 
in  the  air  cannot  be  brought  in  intimate 
contact  with  the  incandescent  fuel  at  the 
proper  time,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  use 
more  than  the  theoretical  quantity.  But 
in  most  cases  the  excess  is  far  beyond 
what  would  really  be  required  if  the  firing 
is  carefully  done. 

tc  This  occasions  great  loss. 

"First. — Because  all  the  oxygen  not 
used  and  the  nitrogen  which  accompanies 
it  must  be  heated  to  the  stack  tempera- 
ture, and  heat  thus  lost;  and 

Second. — Because  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  obtain  air  free  from  moisture, 
which  must  be  converted  into  steam  and 
heated  to  the  stack  temperature.  As 
vapor  of  water  carried  into  the  fire  by  the 
air  causes  a  loss,  it  is  evident  that  the 


artificial  introduction  of  moisture,  either 
by  wetting  the  coal  or  by  producing  the 
blast  with  steam  must  necessarily  increase 
materially  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  stack 


"  Third. — The  next  avoidable  cause  of 
loss  is  too  high  a  stack  temperature.  It 
is  self-evident  that  the  heating  of  the 
vast  amount  of  stack  gases  which  are  be- 
tween ten  and  thirty  times  the  weight 
of  the  coal  burned,  above  the  tempera- 
ture to  which  they  can  be  economically 
reduced,  is  a  very  serious  waste,  particu- 
larly if  this  temperature  is  very  much  in 
^excess  of  what  it  should  be. 

"Fourth. — Loss  by  removing  the  ashes 
&t  too  high  a  temperature.  In  many 
oases  the  ashes  are  so  hot  when  taken 
from  the  furnace  that  they  have  to  be 
wetted  down.  Of  course  all  this  loss  of 
heat  that  can  be  avoided,  represents*  so 
many  dollars  thrown  away. 

"  Fifth. — Loss  by  radiation.  It  is  im- 
portant to  have  the  outside  surface  of  the 
plant,  up  to  the  point  at  which  the  gases 


27 

cease  to  give  up  their  heat,  as  small  and' 
as  cool  as  possible,  either  by  increasing 
the  thickness  of  the  walls,  or  by  covering 
everything  exposed  to  the  air  as  much  as 
conveniently  can  be  done  with  non-con- 
ducting material,  as  the  radiation  in- 
creases with  the  area  exposed,  and  with 
the  difference  in  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  walls  above  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere." 

"We  shall  now  consider  the  first  three 
of  the  avoidable  losses: 

(a)  The  loss  from  incomplete  combus- 
tion is  due  largely  to  poor  firing  and 
careless  cleaning  of  fires,  when  much  un- 
burnt  fuel  passes  through  the  grates,  or 
when  with  too  strong  a  draft  the  particles- 
of  coal  dust  are  blown  to  the  chimney  or 
exhausted  to  the  blower  before  they  are? 
consumed. 

(b)  The  loss  from  excess  of  air  is  one  to 
which  we  cannot  give  too  much  thought. 

One  pound  of  carbon  requires  11.6  Ibs* 
of  air  for  its  complete  combustion. 

Though  there  is  much  uncertainty  as 


28 


to  just  how  much  air  is  used  in  the  burn- 
ing of  fuel,  it  is  said  that  with  forced 
draft  50  per  cent,  excess  air  is  required 
in  addition  to  the  theoretical  quantity,  or 
a  total  of  18  Ibs.  of  air  per  pound  of  coal. 

When  natural  chimney  draft  is  used 
100  per  cent,  excess  of  air  or  24  Ibs.  of 
air  per  pound  of  coal. 

First  Case. — Natural  draft,  60  deg.  F. 
temp,  of  outside  air.  Escaping  gases, 
60  deg.  plus  440  deg. ,  or  500  deg.  F. 

One  Ib.  of  coal  requires,  with  100  per 
cent,  excess  of  air,  24  Ibs.  of  air. 

Second  Case. — Forced  draft,  60  deg.  F. 
temp,  of  outer  air.  Escaping  gases,  60 
deg.  plus  240  deg.,  or  300  deg.  F. 

To  raise  one  Ib.  air — First  case  re- 
quires 0.2377  x  440  =  105  B.  T.  U. 

To  raise  one  Ib.  air — Second  case  re- 
quires 0.2377  x  240=57  B.  T.  U. 

One  Ib.  of  coal,  forced  draft,  wastes 
18  Ibs.  of  air,  with  57  B.  T.  U.  each  lost, 
or  1126  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib.  coal.  One  Ib. 
of  coal,  natural  draft,  wastes  24  Ibs.  of 
air,  with  105  B.  T.  U.  each  lost,  or  2520 
B.  T.  U.  per  Ib.  of  coal. 


Under  the  above  noted  conditions  there* 
is  a  waste  of  2520-1126  or  1394  B.  T.  U. 
per  Ib.  of  coal  burned  with  natural  draft 
as  compared  with  forced  draft.  Consid- 
ering the  heat  units  per  Ib.  of  coal  as 
14200  B.  T.  U.  we  have  a  heat  loss  from 
using  natural  draft  equivalent  to 
2520  x  100 


14200  - 

We  have  a  heat  loss  from  using  forced 
draft  equivalent  to 
1126  x  100 


14200  - 

From  the  above  we  have  a  heat  loss  of 
17.74—7.93  =  9.81  per  cent,  from  using- 
chimney  draft,  which  may  seem  to  be  in 
favor  of  forced  draft  by  a  centrifugal 
blower,  but  it  can  readily  be  appreciated 
that  when  the  air  needed  to  complete*; 
combustion,  or  admitted  to  the  fire 
when  natural  draft  is  used,  approaches 
the  quantity  sent  through  the  fire  by  a, 
blower,  there  is  less  and  less  economy  of 
the  blower  over  the  chimney  until  when 
the  amount  of  air  is  the  same,  no  differ- 
ence exists  as  to  the  economy  of  the 


30 


method  over  the  other,  excepting  the 
interest  and  operating  expenses  of  the 
blower,  which  latter  is  a  considerable 
item  and  one  not  to  be  lightly  turned 
aside.  The  influence  of  surplus  air  and 
a  common  temperature  of  escaping  gases 
on  the  economy  of  a  boiler  is  shown  by 
what  E.  B.  Coxe  says:  "  If  you  have  3 
per  cent,  free  oxygen,  17  per  cent,  car- 
bonic-acid gas,  and  80  per  cent,  nitrogen, 
and  a  stack  temperature  of  500  deg.  F., 
the  heat  loss  is  12.27  per  cent. 

If  you  have  1  per  cent,  of  carbonic  ox- 
ide, 3  per  cent,  of  free  oxygen  and  16  per 
cent,  of  carbonic  acid,  and  a  stack  tem- 
perature of  500  deg.  F.,  the  heat  loss  is 
16.12  per  cent. 

Thorough  burning  of  (CO)  carbonic 
oxide  is  necessary  to  a  high  heat  efficiency. 

From  the  following  table: 

Air  at  300  deg.  F.  has  a  volume  of  1.546  cu.  ft. 

«     500      "          "          "          1.954     " 
based  on  a  volume  of  1  for  air  at  32  deg.  F. 

So  that  from  the  above  the  chimney 
moves  about  26.39  per  cent,  greater  vol- 
ume of  air  than  the  fan. 


31 


Composition  of  Dry  Air. 


By  Weight 

By  Volume 

Nitrogen   

76.815 

79.04 

Oxygen  

23.185 

20.96 

N/0  

3.313 

3.7709 

[From  J.  P.  Cooke's  Principles  of  Chemical  Philosophy .} 


Table  of  Weight  and  Volume  of  Dry  Air. 


Pressure 

Pounds  per 

Atmospheres 

Pounds  per 
Sq.  In.  above 
a  Vacuum 

Sq.  In.  above 
the  Atmos- 
phere (Gauge 

Volume  in 
Cubic  Feet 

x 

Pressure) 

1.00 

14.70 

0.00 

1.0000 

1.10 

16.17 

1.47 

0.9346 

1.25 

18.37 

3.67 

0.8536 

1.50 

22.05 

7.35 

0.7501 

1.75 

25.81 

11.11 

0.6724 

2.00 

29.40 

14.70 

-  0.6117 

2.50 

36.70 

22.00 

0.5221 

3.00 

44.10 

29.40 

0.4588 

3.50 

51.40 

36.70 

0.4113 

4.00 

58.80 

44.10 

0.3741 

5.00 

73.50 

58.80 

0.3194 

6.00 

88.20 

73.50 

0.2806 

7.00 

102.90 

88.20 

0.2516 

8.00 

117.16 

102.90 

0.2288 

9.00 

132.30 

117.60 

0.2105 

10.00 

147.00 

132.30 

0.1953 

15.00 

220.50 

205.80 

0.1465 

20.00 

294.00 

279.30 

0.1195 

25.00 

367.50 

352.80 

0.1020 

Volume  and  Weight  of  Dry  Air 

at  Different  Temperatures  under  a  constant  Atmos- 
pheric Pressure  of  29.92  inches  of  Mercury  in  the 
Barometer  (One  Atmosphere),  the  Volume  at  32 
Degrees  Fahrenheit  being  i. 


2      02 

s^ 

53     -^      QQ 

g  ^ 

1  8 

'o  1 

*°   §  la 

-|  § 

'o    8 

°   «2    B 

«    a? 

S     o 

~  J    g 

o    I? 

s  *IH 

**  ^  ^ 

OH  ^d 

11 

&l 

pH  IS 

_bJD  |S    ft 

I-3 

si* 

1  .3 

EH 

'O     -3 

M'9 

32 

.000 

0.0807 

650 

2.260 

0.0357 

42 

.020 

0.0791 

700 

2.362 

0.0338 

52 

.041 

0.0776 

750 

2.464 

0.0328 

68 

.061 

0.0761 

800 

2.566 

0.0315 

72 

.082 

0.0747 

850 

2.668 

0.0303 

82 

.102 

0.0733 

900 

2.770 

0.0292 

92 

.122 

0.0720 

950 

2.872 

0.0281 

102 

.143 

0.0707 

1,000 

2.974 

0.0268 

112 

1.163 

0.0694 

1,100 

3.177 

0.0254 

122 

1.184 

0.0682 

1,200 

3.381 

0.0239 

132 

1.204 

0-0671 

,300 

3.585 

0.0225 

142 

1.224 

0.0660 

,400 

3.789 

0.0213 

152 

1.245 

0.0649 

,500 

3.993 

0.0202 

162 

1.265 

0.0638 

1,600 

4.197 

0.0192 

172 

1.285 

0.0628 

1,700 

4.401 

0.0183 

182 

1.306 

0.0618 

1,800 

4.605 

0.0175 

192 

1.326 

0.0609 

1,900 

4.809 

0.0168 

202 

1.347 

0.0600 

2,000 

5.012 

0.0161 

212 

1.367 

0.0591 

2,100 

5.216 

0.0155 

230 

1.404 

0.0575 

2,200 

5.420 

0.0149 

250 

1.444 

0.0559 

2,300 

5.624 

0.0142 

275 

1.495 

0.0540 

2,400 

5.828 

0.0138 

300 

1.546 

0.0522 

2,500 

6.032 

0.0133 

325 

1.597 

0.0506 

2,600 

6.236 

0.0130 

350 

1.648 

0.0490 

2,700 

6.440 

0.0125 

375 

1.689 

0.0477 

2,800 

6.644 

0.0121 

400 

1.750 

0.0461 

2,900 

6.847 

0.0118 

450 

1.852 

0.0436 

3,000 

7.051 

0.0114 

500 

1.954 

0.0413 

3,100 

7.255 

0.0111 

550 

2.056 

0.0384 

3,200 

7.459 

0.0108 

600 

2.158 

0.0376 

[From  Compressed  Air.} 


33 

Calorific  Power  and  Air  Required  per  Cubic 
Foot. 


1  Cubic  Foot 

B.  T.  U. 

at60°F. 
and  30" 

Cubic  feet 
required 

Cu.  ft. 
formed  of 

Hydrogen 

326.2 
323.5 

1009.0 
1558.0 

0. 

Air 

Steam 

C02 

.5 
.5 
2.0 

3.0 

2.39 
2.39 
9.56 
14.34 

1 
0 
2 
2 

0 
1 
1 
2 

Carbon  Monoxide 
Marsh  Gas  ' 

Olefiant  Gas.. 

Air  =  20.92  per  cent,  of  Oxygen. 
1  lb.  Carbon  burning  to  CO2  requires  11.6  Ibs.  of  air. 
1  lb.  Carbon  burning  to  CO  requires  5.8  Ibs.  of  air. 
[R.  D.  Wood  &  Co.] 

From  tests  made  at  the  Electro-tech- 
nical Exhibition,  Frankfort-on-Main,  in 
1891,  we  have  for  two  types  of  water-tube 
boilers  these  results : 


Per  ct.  heat  utilized  by  boiler  
"    lost  in  escaping  gases 
"        "          "    ashpit  

70.00 
17.70. 
1.70 

73.30 
17.70 
3.10 

"         "    unaccountable,  radia- 
tion, etc  

10.60 

5.90 

Total  loss  

100. 

100. 

Times  theoretical  quantity  of  air 
supplied  

2.00 

1.82 

Temp,  escaping  gases,  degrees  F. 
Water  gauge  (with  Siegert  Burr's 
Instrument)  

545.9 
0.43  in 

590. 
0.20  in 

[See  &.  E.  C.M.A.  No.  58,  p.  168,  for  more  complete  table] 


The  heat  lost,  etc.,  confirm  in  a  general 
way  the  previous  calculations. 

The  losses  from  too  high  a  temperature 
of  the  escaping  gases  are  common  to 
boiler  plants,  and  with  a  blower  forcing 
the  draft,  the  temperature  may  easily  and 
frequently  does  become  excessively  high. 

The  economy  of  the  low  flue  tempera- 
tures, combined  with  comparatively  low 
rates  of  combustion,  low  percentages  of 
CO,  and  little  or  no  free  oxygen  in  the  es- 
caping gases,  is  shown  quite  conclusively 
by  the  following  reports  of  actual  tests : 

Tests  of  a  Babcock  and  Wilcox  Boiler.* 


APRIL,  1899     Day 

llth 

12th 

13th 

14th 

Average  per  cent.  CO2  

10.7 

10.9 

10.9 

11.1 

"           **.      .  O 

7.8 

8.1 

8.7 

"          CO    

.5 

.02 

.06 

0 

Ashpit 

clos'd 

open 

clos'd 

clos'd 

Air  Supply  

cold 

norm. 

hot 

cold 

Temperature  escaping   gases, 
uptake  deg.  F  

619 

445 

572.7 

521 

Temp  outs,  air,  deg  F 

55  1 

52.4 

64.9 

62. 

"    fire  room,  deg.  F  

71.0 

66.3 

96.1 

83.75 

"    of  air  entering  ashpit  .  . 

165.5 

Vacuum  in  chimney.  .  .  .inches 
Rate  of  combustion  coal 
Equiv.  evap.  from  and  at  212° 
F.  per  Ib.  comb.,  atmos.pres. 

1.43 
46.39 

10.18 

0.43 

19.88 

11.79 

1.41 

41.88 

11.21 

.61 

28.82 

12.15 

*  For  U.  S.  S.  Alert,  1899.—  St.  Eng.  Rep.,  U.  S.  N. 


35 


Niclausse  Boiler.* 


MAY  1899     Day  .     .. 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

Average  per  cent.  CO2.  .  . 

CO  !  !  ! 
N  
Temp  esc  gases  deg  F 

6.18 
11.58 
.94 
81.30 

5.07 
13.73 
.62 

80.58 
525 

4.95 
13.63 

80  .'65 
464 

6.74 
11.62 
.53 

81.11 
389 

7.10 
9.60 
.90 
82.40 
794 

"    outside  air, 
"    fire  room,  deg.  F.  .. 
41    of  air  entering  ash- 

84.6 
98.2 

106  4 

70.7 
80.4 

189  1 

62. 

79.8 

69.4 

85. 

69. 
96.6 

319.9 

Rate  of  combustion,  coal. 
Equiv.  evap.  from  and  at 
212°  F.  per  Ib.  combus. 

26.63 
10.24 

26.79 
10.38 

23.87 
9.76 

14.24 
10.78 

46.18 
9.22 

Gas  Analysis— Boiler  Tests. 


a 
8I 

fi 

Per  Cent. 

3  Dry  Gas  1 
Carbon. 

9 

*& 

|l 

'3.Q 

8 

0 

8 

s  »- 

Q 

& 

r 

* 

1 

2H. 

20.45 
20.95 

12.19 
12.70 

14.0 

12.7 

4.5 
5.7 

1.1 

0.0 

16.8 
19.1 

466  deg.  F. 
493 

3H. 

34.06 

11.47 

13.1 

4.2 

1.5 

17.3 

608.6 

4H 

35.61 

11.50 

12.8 

5.7 

0.6 

18.8 

570.6 

1|If5 

50.95 

11.43 

11.8 

6.9 

0.4 

20.6 

640.0 

£g-s  -\  GH. 

48.31 

11.12 

14.5 

4.8 

0.2 

17.7 

637.0 

Illlr 

59.75 

10.52 

less  than 
900  deg.F. 

Pocahontas— Flat  Top  Mine— Coal  was  used  in  all  tests. 
Contained  considerable  slate;  clinkered  badly. 
[St.  Eng.  Rep.,\5.  S.  N.,  1900.  See  same  for  full  details.] 

*  For  U.  S.  S.  Alert,  1899.— St.  Eng.  Sep.,  U.  S.  N. 


36 


Prom  tests  of  boilers*  where  forced 
natural  draft  was  used,  these  results  ac- 
company very  economic  evaporation : 


Boiler  pressure,  by  gauge, 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in  

63 

68 

70 

71 

Temp,  escaping  gases  deg.  F. 

346 

355 

395 

400 

Another  avoidable  furnace  loss  is  too 
high  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases ; 
for  example,  in  tests  made  on  B.  &  W. 
boilers  with  Coxe  Stokers,  at  Deringer, 
Pa. ,  we  have : 


Hate  of  Combustion,  Ibs 

Temp,  of  escaping  gases,  deg.  F. 
Equiv.  evap.  per  Ib.  of  combus- 
tion, Ibs 

Air  pressure  in  ashpit,  inch,  water 


449.5 

11.28 
0.60 


20.34 
900 

8.51 
1.00 


The  loss  in  evaporation  in  the  second 
test  accompanies  a  very  high  temperature 
of  900  deg.  F. 

A  forced  draft  plant  now  in  operation, 
without  an  economizer, delivers  the  escap- 

*  Barrus. 


37 

ing  gases  at  such  a  high  temperature,  say 
1,000  deg.  F.,  that  at  times  they  heat  the 
short  steel  chimney  to  a  dull-red  heat. 

In  the  Otto  Colliery,  Branchdale,  Pa., 
cylinder  boilers  under  forced  draft  de- 
liver the  gases  at  about  1,600  deg.  F., 
and  vertical  boilers,  711-732  deg.  F.,  in 
both  of  which  the  evaporative  efficiency 
is  low. 

The  highest  evaporative  efficiency  of  a 
gun-boat  type  of  horizontal  boiler  was 
reached  with  the  temperature  of  escaping 
gases  at  516  deg.  F.,  with  a  certain  type 
of  vertical  boiler  500  deg.  F.,  another 
421  deg.  F. 

Forced  draft  used  alone  generally  re- 
sults in  higher  temperature  of  the  escap- 
ing gases  than  is  usual  with  natural 
chimney  draft;  we  here  have  another  ob- 
jection to  forced  draft. 

The  Purdue  tests  show  that  after  a 
certain  high  rate  of  combustion  has  been , 
reached,  as  it  increases  the  temperature 
of  the  escaping  gases  decreases — the  same 
total  quantity  of  coal  being  burned  in  a 


38 


given  time  on  a  grate  of  varying  area, 
under  the  same  boiler,  but  that  point  is 
reached  only  at  a  very  large  rate  of  com- 
bustion. 


Coal  per  hour  per  square  foot 
of  grate      .                  .    Ibs 

61.40 
647 
2.20 

8.26 

83.50 
629 
2.50 

7.87 

124.20 
610 
3.30 

7.59 

240.80 
500 
5.60 

6.67 

Temp,  of  escap.  gases,  .cleg.  F. 
Draft,  in  inches  of  water 

Equivalent  evaporation  per  Ib. 
of  combustion  Ibs 

Noting  for  example  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  steam  under  100  Ibs.  pressure  by 
gauge  is  338  deg.  F.,  and  150  Ibs.,  366 
deg.  F.,  we  can  readily  see  that  the  nearer 
the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases  is 
to  the  temperature  of  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  the  more  economical  the  boiler  is, 
the  temperature  of  the  flue  gases  should 
not  exceed  400  deg.  to  500  deg.  F.  for 
economy. 

The  utilization  of  the  heat  of  waste 
gases,  or  the  waste  heat  in  escaping  gases, 
especially  when  forced  draft  is  installed, 
is  best  accomplished  in  many  cases  by 
putting  in  an  Economizer  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  boiler  plant. 


39 


It  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  feed 
water  heater,  and  is  described  by  one 
manufacturer  as  follows : 

The  Economizer  consists  of  a  series  of 
sets  of  cast-iron  tubes  about  4  inches  in 
diameter  and  9  feet  in  length,  made  in 
sections  (of  various  widths)  and  connect- 
ed by  "top"  and  "bottom  headers," 
these  again  being  coupled  by  "top"  and 
.' ;  bottom  branch  pipes  "  running  length- 
wise, one  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the 
bottom,  on  opposite  sides  and  outside  the 
brick  chamber  which  encloses  the  appar- 
atus. The  waste  gases  are  led  to  the 
Economizer  by  the  ordinary  flue  from  the 
boilers  to  the  chimney. 

The  feed  water  is  forced  into  the  Econ- 
omizer by  the  boiler  pump  or  injector,  at 
the  lower  branch  pipe  nearest  the  point 
of  exit  of  gases,  and  emerge  from  the 
Economizer  at  the  upper  branch  pipe 
nearest  the  point  where  the  gases  enter. 

Each  tube  is  provided  with  a  geared 
scraper,  which  travels  continuously  up 
and  down  the  tubes  at  a  slow  rate  of 


40 

speed,  the  object  being  to  keep  the  exter- 
nal surface  clean  and  free  from  soot,  a 
non-conductor  of  heat. 

The  mechanism  for  working  the  scrap- 
ers is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  Economiz- 
er, outside  the  chamber,  and  the  motive 
power  is  supplied  either  by  a  belt  from 
some  convenient  shaft  or  small  indepen- 
dent engine  or  motor.  The  power  re- 
quired for  operating  the  gearing,  how- 
ever, is  very  small. 

The  apparatus  is  fitted  with  blow-off 
and  safety  valves,  and  a  space  is  provided 
at  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  for  the  col- 
lection of  the  soot,  which  is  removed  by 
the  scrapers. 

Economizers  are  not  installed  in  Amer- 
ica so  extensively  as  in  Europe,  for  the 
European  design  of  boiler  costs  less  per 
H.  P.  than  the  American  boiler  and  con- 
sequently Americans  put  in  more  boiler 
and  less  Economizer. 

In  America,  where  boilers  are  compar- 
atively expensive,  the  Economizer  is  used 
to  take  the  gases  after  they  leave  the 


boiler,  and  reduce  them,  by  heating  feed 
water  to  the  lowest  possible  temperature. 

Economizers  in  no  way  alter  the  con- 
ditions in  the  boilers  of  plants  of  which 
they  form  a  part,  but  they  materially,  in 
many — yes,  in  most  of  cases,  add  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  steam  plant. 

From  four  tests  made  by  Mr.  Barrus> 
we  have : 


1 

2 

3 

4 

Degrees  of  temp,  of  gases  lost 

145 

107 

104 

156 

Degrees  of  temp,  of  feed  water 
raised  in  Economizer 

80 

66 

58 

92 

Degrees  of  temp,  of  gases  leav- 
in01  Economizer  

231 

254 

299 

279 

Per  cent,  increase  in  evapora- 
tion due  to  Economizer  

10.5 

7 

9.3 

12.  & 

The  evaporative  efficiency  of  the  boiler 
being  increased  from  7  to  12.8  per  cent. 

In  these  tests  the  temperatures  of  the 
gases  leaving  the  Economizer  were  from 
231°  to  299°  F. 

Had  the  gases  not  passed  to  an  Economi- 
zer, the  temperature  of  500°  F.,  or  961.2° 
absolute,  would  be  compared  with  231^ 
or  691.2°  F.  absolute  or  with  299°  F. 


-      42 

or  760.2  absolute,  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  intensity  of  chimney  draft  produced 
in  either  case,  and  as  the  intensity  is  a 
direct  function  of  absolute  temperatures, 
we  can  say  in  a  general  way  that  the  loss 
of  intensity  of  draft  due  to  the  loss  of 
heat  in  the  economizer  is  30  per  cent. ; 
therefore,  to  produce  the  same  draft  in 
an  economizer  plant,  a  chimney  say  41 
per  cent,  higher  than  for  an  ordinary  in- 
stallation without  an  economizer  would 
be  necessary.  It  is  because  of  the  gases 
reaching  the  chimney  of  a  given  plant  at 
a  t  emperature  below  300  deg.  F.  that 
forced  combustion  is  employed  to  provide 
sufficient  draft  without  using  a  chimney 
for  the  purpose.  Unless  the  boilers  and 
economizers  are  designed  with  special 
reference  to  forced  combustion,  the  gases 
are  likely  to  escape  from  the  boiler  setting 
at  a  much  higher  temperature  than  with 
natural  draft,  resulting  in  an  inefficient 
boiler;  at  the  same  time  the  gases  leaving 
an  economizer  in  a  forced  draft  plant  are 


43 


frequently  not  so  very  much  lower  than 
may  be  obtained  with  natural  draft. 

Whatever  saving  there  may  be  in  a 
blower-economizer  outfit  over  natural 
chimney  draft  should  be  credited  to  the 
economizer  alone. 

With  a  chimney  alone  producing  draft 
we  have  a  heat  loss  of  about  17.74  per 
cent.  (50  excess  air.)  With  a  blower 
alone,  a  heat  loss  of  8  per  cent,  to  which 
we  should  add  the  cost  of  operating  the 
blower  which  is  from  1  to  7  per  cent,  of 
the  steam  made  in  the  boilers. 

Anthracite  Pea  Coal.  Averages  Ibs. 

5  tests — Stationary  Tapper  grates — 

Natural  draft 10.17 

4  tests  —  Shaking  grates  —  Natural 

draft 10.45 

3  tests — Shaking  grates  —  Natural 
draft  and  Steam  Blower  (steam 
made  used  in  blower) 10.39 

Anthracite  Buckwheat  Coal. 

1  test — Shaking     grates  —  Natural 

draft 10.86 

2  tests  —  Shaking   grates  —  Natural 

draft  and  Steam  Blower  (steam 

made  used  in  blower) 9.96 

W'ith  a  blower  and  economizer  outfit 


44 

which  gives  the  same  flue  temperature  as 
in  a  chimney  and  economizer,  we  have  a 
loss  which  is  the  cost  of  operating  the 
blowers. 

Two  Vertical  " Manning"  Boilers, 
when  operated  under  the  conditions 
named,  gave  the  preceding  equivalent 
evaporation  from  and  at  212  deg.  per  Ib. 
of  combustible,  showing  as  far  as  they  go 
the  economy  of  shaking  grates. 

All  of  the  blower  methods  of  draft 
production  must  be  considered  in  con- 
nection with,  and  be  planned  with  espe- 
cial regard  to  the  quantity  of  fuel  to  be 
burned  in  a  given  time,  and  the  amount 
of  air  needed  for  the  complete  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel,  which  air  must  necessa- 
rily pass  through  the  blowers. 

18  to  25  Ibs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of 
grate  per  hour  is  all  the  coal  that  should 
or  can  be  burned  with  economy  under 
natural  draft,  a  greater  amount  necessi- 
tates forced  draft. 

Another  thing  which  should  not  be 
lost  sight  of  in  connection  with  the  burn- 


ing  of  small  coals,  is  that  the  unburnfc 
coal  falling  through  the  grate  which  in 
the  case  of  anthracite  culm  has  reached 
58  per  cent,  (found  in  the  ashes). 

Fan,  Stoker  and  Economizer  Engines 
in  a  24-hour  test  used  800  Ibs.  of  coal  to- 
burn  19,612  Ibs.  of  coal  or  4.01  percent, 
Sturtevant  Fan,  American  Stoker  and 
Green  Economizer. — Eng.  Rec.  Vol.  42, 
p.  348. 

The  effect  of  the  temperature  of  the 
gases  on  the  power  required  to  operate  a 
fan,  is  shown  clearly  by  the  following: 

Effect   of  Temperature   of  Gases   on  Fan 
Load. 


Induced  Draft. 

1 

2 

3 

Draft  in  inches  of  water 

0.42 

0  46 

0  24 

Temperature  of  gases  at  fan,  deg.  F.  . 
Speed  of  fan,  revolutions  per  minute.  . 

199.6 
154 

162.5 
179 

330 
230 

Current  req.  by  fan  motor,  amperes.  . 
Current  generated  by  plant,  amperes.  . 

10.3 
896 

13.3 
1236 

20.4 
960 

Proportion  used  by  fan,  per  cent  
Boiler  H.  P.  developed  

1.15 
521.7 

1.17 
600.6 

2.08 
439  2 

The  blower  used  was  an  American 
Blower  Co.  ?s  centrifugal  fan  with  28  x  84 
inch  wheel. 


Size  of  Fa 


Diam.  Wheel 
inches. 


Width    at   Per- 
iphery. 


to—    Size  of  Outlet. 
-  oo       inches  square. 

s  • 


Speed  R.  P.  M.  for 
1-inch  Draft. 


j  Capacity  of  Fan  in 
J     cubic    feet    per 

minute,    Temp. 

Gases  550  deg.  F. 


H.  P.  Boiler  Ca- 
pacity  from  Fan 
Capacity. 


tOO  00  04  «t  rf*.  JO  N)t«  H-  >-  >- 


Pounds  Goal  per 
hour  at  5  pounds 
per  H.  P.  hour. 


Evaporation  per 
hour  at  34  5 
pounds  Water 
perH.  P. 


Brake    H.    P. 
drive     Fan 
Speed. 


I9s£li§!i3§§i! 


Capacity  of  Fan 
per  inch  Width 
at  Periphery. 


R.  P.  per  inch 
Width  at  Peri- 
phery. 


i  Cubic  feet  Air  per 
I  minute  for  Com- 
;  bustion,  Temp. 
)  62  deg.  F. 


.      9  ..     _ 

28*1? 

Ell! 

-•  H  a>  -g  2 
O  <  g  §  2 
§  •§  ?  ~  W 

?    2    N 


r  S  »  3 

ff:» 


-s 


l 


g   g 


'!;  S 


O  B 


47 


The  third  test,  gases  130  deg.  hotter 
than  first,  require  about  100  per  cent, 
more  power,  and  yet  the  boiler  evapora- 
tion is  about  20  per  cent,  less  than  in  the 
first  test. — Curtis  Pub.  Co.,  by  Davis  & 
Griggs. 

The  cost  of  the  above  Mechanical 
Draft  outfit  (2  fans),  including  motors, 
was  $5.53  per  boiler  H.  P. 

The  data  concerning  Induced  Draft 
Fans  in  the  accompanying  table  is  taken 
from  the  1901  catalogue  of  the  American 
Blower  Co. 

One  of  the  recent  installations  of  In- 
duced Draft  apparatus  is  that  of  the 
Curtis  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
which  contains  3  (250  H.  P.)  B.  &  W. 
Boilers  for  160  Ibs.  pressure. 

An  old  chimney  30  x  40  inches  by  90 
feet  high. 

The  Induced  Draft  plant  was  installed 
in  duplicate,  i.  e.  one  plant  in  reserve, 
by  American  Blower  Co. 

Fan,  120  inches,  water  cooled  bearings, 
8  H.  P.  Electric  Motor. 


48 


Temperature  of  escaping  gases  540 
deg.  F.  from  boiler. 

Temperature  of  escaping  gases  260 
deg.  F.  from  economizer. 

The  fan  requires  1.4  of  the  power 
used  by  the  plant. — (Eng.  Rec.  VoL:43, 
p.  172.) 

The  economizer  consists  of  two  brick 
chambers,  each  containing  24-6  tube  sec- 
tions of  4T9-g-  inch  pipe,  each  pipe  7^  feet 
long;  cost,  including  masonry,  was  $5.73 
per  boiler  H.  P. 

Results  from  Tests. 


4 

2 

3 

deg.  F. 

deg.  F. 

deg.  F. 

Temp.of  gases  leaving  boilers  .  . 

411    - 

422 

474 

"      "      "         "    economizer 
"      **  water  entering     " 

199.6 
116.9 

162.5 
38.2 

Ec'n.off 

"      "      "         "        boilers.. 

212.5 

192  9 

38  3 

Saving  due  to  economizer.  per  ct. 

9.92 

16.01 

[Davis  &  Griggs.] 


ECOKOMIZEK  TESTS. 

Tests  made  at  the  74th  Street  station 
of  the  Manhattan  Elevated  Eailway,  New 
York  City,  resulted  in  these  facts : 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


The  unit  of  absorption  is ilr5  BV 
per  square  foot  per  hour  per  degree  dif- 
ference in  temperature. 

Loss  of  draft  in  economizer 


H  =  pounds  of  gases  per  square  foot  of 

draft  area  per  hour. 
n   =  number  of   sections   in  length  of 

economizer. 

During  this  test  these  averages  were 
obtained  as  follows : 

Water  entering  economizer.  . . .   93.5°  F. 

Water  leaving  economizer 203.8° 

Temperature  gases  at  chimney  .399° 
Draft  entering  economizer.  . .  .0.64" 

Draft  leaving  economizer 0.87" 

Draft  in  chimney  at  base 1.16" 

Chimney         feet  high. 

The  Sturtevant  Co.  in  "Mechanical 
Draft "  give  the  following  rule  for  ca- 
pacity area  of  a  blast  fan: 


50 


The  square  inches  of  blast,  or  capacity 
area  of  a  cased  fan,  is  approximately  : 

DW 

Capacity  area  = 


D  =  diameter  of  fan  wheel  in  inches. 
W  =  width  of  fan  wheel  at  circumference 

in  inches. 
X  =  constant  dependent  on  type  of  fan 

and  casing. 
In  general  practice  X  =  3. 

The  area  of  the  casing  outlet  is  always 
larger  than  the  above  figures  give  for 
capacity  area. 

The  volume  of  air  passing  through  the 
fan  is  calculated  from  the  capacity  area. 

The  power  required  to  operate  a  fan 
varies  with  the  air  pressure,  volume,  tem- 
perature, and  its  efficiency  in  generation 
depends  upon  whether  a  belt-driven  fan 
is  used,  or  the  power  is  furnished  by  di- 
rect connected  motor  or  steam  or  other 
type  of  engine. 


51 


BLOWERS. 

Sturtevant  No.  2  monogram  blower, 
no  piping,  1800  revolutions  per  minute, 
0.8  H.  P.  (D). 

Sturtevant  No.  9  foundry  blower,  sup. 
plying  iron-melting  cupola,  25  H.  P. 
(W.  26). 

No.  6  Sturtevant*— Fan  wheel  23  in. 
diam.  x  6f  at  periphery.  Diameter  of 
inlet  on  each  side  is  12 1  in. :  8  blades, 
area  45.59  sq.  in.  each.  At  a  speed  of 
1468  rev.  per  min.,  blast  3  oz.  to  sq.  in. 
took  3.55  H.  P.  with  area  of  discharge 
of  44  sq.  in.  giving  2750  cu.  ft.  of  air 
per  min.  At  a  speed  of  1519  rev.  per 
min.  blast  pressure,  3.5  oz.  per  sq.  in. — 
0.8  H.  P.  with  opening  closed  and  no 
air  delivered. 

Mr.  Snell  ran  air  through  a  tubular 
heater  placed  about  30  feet  from  the 
blower;  at  1100  revolutions  per  minute  of 
blower,  air  was  discharged  at  161  deg.  F., 

*  Topical  Discussion,  222-226.      Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E., 
Vol.  7.    Mr.  H.  I.  Siiell. 


52 


water  would  have  been  190  deg.  F. ;  at 
2100  revolutions  the  air  was  a  little 
higher  temperature. — Trans.  A.  S.  M. 
E.,  Vol.  20,  p.  89. 

Steam  to  operate  steam  jet — 7.4  of 
boiler  evaporation. 

Steam  to  operate  steam  jet — 8.78  of 
of  boiler  evaporation. 

Fan — 4  per  cent,  of  boiler  evaporation 
used  to  drive  the  fan. 

Fan— 18  H.  P.  to  supply  1800  to  1950 
boiler  H.  P. 

Fan— 3.21  H.  P.  to  supply  401.5  boiler 
H.  P.  (Whitham). 

Fan— 5.6  H.  P.  to  supply  520  boiler 
H.  P.  (Wagner). 

Admitted  relative  efficiency  of  fan  to 
jet  8  to  1. 


53 


Buffalo  Steel  Pressure  Blowers. 

Table  of  Dimensions. 
.-E--±i~F-i| 


No. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 

111/2 

12 


32 

40 

43*6 

53 

53 


6 

7% 
10 


4% 
4% 
5l/2 
5% 
7H 

101/2 
121/2 

16 
20 
25 

28 
28 


7* 
8% 
10 


14*6 

16i/2 
18 


15% 
1634 
19 
22 


12 


liyz  131/2 


H 


11 


13^13 

14%  13&  15% 
17H 
19 

25V2  17i/2  20 


30i/2  21H  23i/2  11V6  36H  29 


2% 


J 

7 

91, 
10% 


9*i25 


16% 


41%  34 
41%  34 


K 


13 


19J4  14 

211/2  161/2 

19 


10*6  3Qi/2  25i/2  lQi/2  4554 


19V* 
23 


12 

12% 

12% 


M 


3 
4 

5 
4% 

27% 
61/2  33% 

40 


41 


50% 

53 

53 


Dimensions  in  inches, 


54 


Table  of  Speeds  and   Capacities  in 
Cubic  Feet  per  Minute. 

(Forge.) 


Number 
of 
Blower 

4  Oz.  PRESSURE 

6  Oz.  PRESSURE 

Forges 

R.P.  M. 

Cap. 

R.  P.  M. 

Cap. 

2 

3 

4986 

289 

5596 

326 

3 

5 

3993 

542 

4473 

607 

4 

6 

3363 

573 

3754 

642 

5 

7 

2952 

651 

&308 

730 

6 

8 

2573 

839 

2883 

940 

7 

11 

2275 

1002 

2549 

1123 

8 

16 

2067 

1501 

2316 

1681 

9 

22 

1851 

2136 

2074 

2393 

10 

32 

1384 

3116 

1550 

3491 

11 

40 

1154 

3845 

1293 

4308 

UK 

50 

937 

4741 

1050 

4734 

12 

60 

937 

5002 

1050 

5604 

Number 
of 
Blower 

6  Oz.  PRESSURE 

7  Oz.  PRESSURE 

.  R.  P.  M. 

Cap. 

R.  P.  M. 

Cap. 

2 

6132 

355 

3 

4910 

666 

5tfl4 

'721 

4 

4121 

705 

4459 

762 

5 

3631 

801 

3929 

867 

6 

3165 

1032 

3425 

1117 

7 

2798 

1233 

3029 

1334 

8 

2543 

1845 

2750 

1997 

9 

2275 

2627 

2460 

2844 

10 

1702 

3832 

1842 

4147 

:n 

1419 

4729 

1586 

5119 

11  '/a 

1152 

5831 

1247 

6312 

12 

1152 

6152 

1247 

6658 

55 


Table  of  Speeds  and  Capacities  for 
Cupola  Service. 


Number 
of 
Blower 

Inside 
Diameter 
of  Cupola 

Pressure 
in 
Ounces 

Revolutions 
Minute 

Melting 
Capacity  in 
Ibs.  per  Hr. 

Cubic  Ft  of 
AirRequir'd 
per  Minute 

4 

20 

8 

4732 

1545 

666 

5 

25 

8 

4209 

2321 

773 

6 

30 

8 

3660 

3093 

951 

7 

35 

8 

3244 

4218 

1486 

8f 

40 

8 

2948 

5425 

2199 

9 

45 

10 

2785 

7818 

3203 

10 

55 

10 

2195 

11295 

4938 

11 

65 

12 

1952 

16955 

7707 

ntt 

72 

12 

1647 

22607 

10276 

12- 

84 

12 

1625 

25836 

11744 

4 

20 

9 

5030 

1647 

717 

5 

25 

10 

4726 

2600 

867 

6 

30 

10 

4108 

3671 

1067 

7 

35 

10 

3642 

4777 

1668 

8 

40 

10 

3310 

6082 

2469 

9 

45 

12 

3260 

8598 

3523 

10 

12 

2413 

12378 

5431 

11 

65 

14 

2116 

18357 

8358 

a*. 

84 

J4 

14 

1797 
1775 

25176 
-28019 

,  11144 
12730 

56 


Cupola  Practice  Tests. 

Root's  Blower,  Acme  No.  M. 
Iron  melted,  22  tons,  10  cwt.     5  tons  melted  per  hour. 


Motor 
and 
Shaft 
light. 

Blowing  Cupola 

Maxim. 

Minim. 

Revolutions  

360 
246 
104 
32.7 

28.2 
4.5 

350 
233 
66 
21.7 

Volts  

245 
14 
4.6 

Amperes  

E.  H.  P.    Total  

'  '         Average  

Time,  hours  

Eoot's  Blowor.  Acme  No.  K. 
Iron  melted,  12  tons.    7  tons  melted  per  hour. 


Motor 
and 

Blowing 

Cupol 

Shaft 
light 

Maxim. 

Minim. 

Revolutions  

430 

394 

Volts  

232 

237 

225 

Amperes  

9.5 

57.0 

50  0 

E.  H.  P.     Total  

2.96 

17.1 

15  2 

Average  

15  94 

Time,  hours  

3.00 

The  first  cupola  has  a  capacity  of  7 
tons  per  lour. 


57 

The  American  Blower  Co.  also  gives 
this  table  of  data  concerning  fans  for 
forced  draft,  which  only  goes  as  far  as 
fans  with  wheel  33  inches  in  diameter. 

Blowers  for  Forced  Draft. 

Forced  Draft  Capacity  Table  for  Blowers. 

Temperature  air,  62  degrees  F. ;'  18  n>s.  air  per  \.  Ib.  coal;  34.5  fcs. 
water  per  H.  P.;  Barometer.  29.92;  234  cublcrft,  per  1  tb.  coal; 
Evaporation,  6.9  tt>s.  Water  per  1  n>.  coal;  Pressure,  1V4 
ounces;  5  Ibs.  coal  per  H.  P.  hour. 


H 


Si* 


IS! 


1.24 

1.87 
2,66 
3.50 
4.54 
5.72 


•  .(American  Blower  Co.) 


A  Niclausse*  (Marine  Type)  water  tube 
boiler  was  under  test  on  land,  and  it  was 
desired  to  maintain  a  rate  of  combustion 
of  30  Ibs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate 


*  St.  Eng.  fiep.—U.  S.  N. 


58 

per  hour.  "It  was  difficult  to  regulate 
the  blower  so  as  to  obtain  the  desired  uni- 
form rate  of  combustion."  "  The  weather 
cleared  and  a  fresh  breeze  sprang  up,  in- 
creasing in  strength  so  that  the  blower, 
started  at  500  revolutions,  had  to  be 
gradually  slowed  to  330." 

The  maximum  rate  of  combustion  un- 
der this  boiler  with  forced  draft  was 
46.76  Ibs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate 
per  hour,  which  may  be  considered  the 
maximum  for  "naval  vessels  other  than 
torpedo  boats  and  destroyers." 

One  authority  has  carefully  analyzed  a 
representative  boiler  test,  and  gives  the 
following  losses:  coal  capable  of  evapo- 
rating 13. 97  Ibs.  of  water  per  lb.,  actually 
evaporated  9.68  Ibs. : 

Losses — Chimney    .     .     12.59  per  cent. 
Ashpit,      .     .       2.68       " 
Not  specified  .     15.43       " 

Total  30.80 


59 

The  products  of  combustion  are  given 
by  Williams  as : 

1.  Steam — highly   rarefied,    invisible, 
and  incombustible. 

2 .  Carbonic  acid — invisible  and  incom- 
bustible. 

3.  Carbonic  oxide — invisible,  but  com- 
bustible. 

4.  Smoke — visible,  partly  incombusti- 
ble, partly  combustible.     Hydrogen  is  in- 
visible. 

Carbon  returns  to  black  state  and  be- 
comes visible.  Much  can  be  learned  re- 
garding the  completeness  of  the  combus- 
tion of  fuel  by  the  analysis  of  the  escaping 


A  large  boiler  with  a  good  fire  gava 
gases  with : 

16. 5  per  cent,  of  C0a 

3.3       "  "  0 

0.9       "  "  CO 

71.3       "  "  N 

92.0 


60 


See  Table  X,  pp.  158,  159,  Trans. 
JT.  K  C.  M.  A.  No.  58. 

Smoke  prevention  is  in  reality  complete 
combustion,  and  forced  combustion  aids 
or  rather  prevents  smoke  only  in  so  far 
as  it  regulates  the  quantity  of  air  fed  to 
the  fire. 

One  authority  in  Mechanics*  some 
years  ago  gave  these  notes  on  smoke  pre- 
vention : 

"  The  question  of  smoke  prevention 
has  agitated  the  minds  of  engineers  for 
many  years,  although  pretty  well  solved 
by  Mr.  C.  Wye  Williams  more  than  20 
years  ago.  Many  of  the  so-called  inven- 
tions of  the  present  day  are  either  mere 
copies  of  his  or  reinventions  of  what  was 
known  to  him  and  used  in  his  experi- 
ments. The  principle  of  burning  the 
gases  of  coal  is  best  illustrated  in  the 
Argand  and  Siemen's  burners  for  lamps, 
and  depends  wholly  on  a  thorough  and 
intimate  mixture  of  air  with  the  gas 

*  Published  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


61 

at  a  high  enough  temperature  to  insure 
combustion — i.  e.,  the  air  must  be  mixed 
with  the  gas  before  the  latter  has  been 
cooled  down  by  contact  with  cold  sur- 
faces. Then  by  having  openings  for  air 
through  the  doors,  and  by  firing  alter- 
nately and  reversing  the  draft,  the  gas 
from  the  fresh  coal  is  passed  over  the  in- 
candescent coal  on  the  other  side,  and  so 
burned  before  it  reaches  the  combustion 
chamber  or  tubes,  in  which  case  the  com- 
bustion chamber  may  be  smaller  than 
otherwise. 

"Another  way  is  to  have  the  fire 
chambers  side  by  side,  and  supply  the  air 
at  the  bridge  as  the  gases  pass  to  the 
combustion  chamber;  then  by  firing  al- 
ternately there  is  always  a  stream  of  hot 
gas  coming  in  contact  with  the  fresh  gas 
from  the  fire  chamber  last  fired,  which  in- 
sures a  perfect  combustion.  In  this  case  we 
have  nearly  the  same  conditions  as  in  an 
Argand  burner,  burning  ordinary  illum- 
inating gas.  The  fire  chamber  being  the 
gas  producer  and  the  combustion  cham- 


62 

ber  the  burner,  the  combustion,  com- 
menced in  the  former,  is  completed  in 
the  latter,  and  the  tubes  absorb  the  heat, 
so  that  the  carbonic  acid  passes  away  at 
a  comparatively  reduced  temperature." 

The  effect  of  varying  quantities  of  air 
can  be  readily  seen  by  carefully  studying 
notes  of  actual  tests. 

Eob.  Kane,  M.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  and 
E.  H.  Brett,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  conducted 
some  elaborate  tests  on  Williams's  patent 
furnace,  when  they  found  that  with  or- 
dinary charging  of  coal  and  usual  air 
admitted  much  dense  smoke  passed 
through  the  flues  at  a  temperature  of  650 
deg.  F.,  admitting  the  proper  quantity 
of  air,  finely  divided — no  smoke  visible — 
temperature  1211  deg.  F. ;  then  shutting 
off  one-half  the  air-inlets,  giving  one-half 
the  amount  of  air  as  in  the  preceding 
test,  lurid  flame  passed  through  the  flues 
at  985  deg.  F.,  and  a  light  gray  smoke 
issued  from  the  chimney* 


63 


The  following  table  by  E.  B.  Coxe  is 
abstracted  from  a  quite  extensive  one 
published  in  the  N.  E.  C.  Manf.  Assn. 
Trans.  No.  58: 

Table. 
1  2  3 


Gas  analysis  com- 
bustible in  fuel 
burned 
100  per  cent,  carbon. 

Number  of  times 
the  theoretical 
air  supplied 
n. 

Per  cent,  of  heat 
lost  when 
T-t=500  deg.  F. 
Per  cent.  H. 

C02  =  21  ) 
N    =  79  f 

1.00 

10.1535 

C02  =  14  ) 

0     =    l[ 

1.50 

14.8241 

N    =79) 

C02  =  10  ) 

0     =  11  [ 

2.10 

20.4288 

N    =  79) 

C02  =    7) 

0    =  14} 

3.00 

28.8359 

N    =  79) 

C02  =    3  ) 

0     =  18t- 

7.00 

-66.2008-- 

N    =  79) 

EN 


79 
Formula :  n  =  T^J- 


Percent  n      r(11.5Xn)+l]X.238x(T-t) 
rer  cent.  a. 


64 


TABLE. 

Abstracted  from  same  authority  as  the 
preceding   table   gives    the   number    of 
times  the  theoretical  quantity  of  air  sup- 
plied, with  various  gas  analyses  : 
123 


C0+C03 

frsrTfl 

C02  +  C0 

+  0=21 

N=80 
C02  +  C0 
+  0=20 

21 

1.00 

19 

1.10 

1.05 

Original 

17 

1.23  5 

1.16 

table  con- 

15 

1.40 

1.31 

tains  5  col- 

14 

1.50 

1.39 

umns,  and 

12 

1.75 

1.60 

Column  1 

10 

8 

7 

2.10 
2.62 
3.00 
4.20 

1.89 
2.29 
2.57 
3.39 

has  every 
number 
from  21  to  1 

3 

7.00 

5.00 

9.43 

21.00 

Formula  for  values  of  columns  2  and  3  is 


1 


1- 


79  On 
21  N 


These  conditions  can  only  exist  when  hydro- 
gen is  present  in  the  fuel  burnt,  and  has  been 
converted  into  water. 


65 


GAS  ANALYSES. 

With  a  McClave  grate  and  a  steam  jet 
blower  the  analysis  was 

C02  —8.20  per  cent. 
CO— 13.15    "     " 
H    —11.08    "     " 
CH4— 2.00    "     " 
0      —0.30    "     " 

With  fan  blower  and  stoker, 
C02— 16. 80  per  cent. 
0     —  1.70    "     " 
CO   —    .40    "     " 

Mr.  Magnus  Troilius*'in  a  paper  on 
"The  Analysis"  of  furnace  gases  gives 
for  gas  from  producers : 

C02  7.50  8.00 

CO  16.00  15.50 

H  15.30  I    14.90 

CH4  1.90 

Which  is  very  similar  to  the  first  above, 
showing  by  the  large  amount  of  (CO) 
carbonic  oxide  and  (H)  hydrogen  that 
there  is  a  decided  loss  of  heat. 

*  A.  L  M.  E.,  1883. 


66 

Blowers  can  be  regulated;  one  would 
think  that  "  damper  regulators"  had 
never  been  heard  of  in  connection  with 
chimneys;  in  fact,  many  plants  are  not 
now  equipped  with  them. 

The  effect  of  the  quantity  of  surplus 
air  on  the  temperature  of  combustion  in 
the  furnace  is  for  theoretical  quantity  of 
air  4940°  F.  above  32°  F. 

50$  additional  air  3332°  "      "      '"    " 
100$  additional  air  2505°  "      "       "    " 

When  the  gases  are  under  pressure,  as 
in  stokeholds  of  vessels,  the  temperature 
of  combustion  is  at  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure  2760°  F.  above  32°  F. 

atpres.  of2atmos.  3475°  "      "       "    " 
«     "  *«  3      «      3968°  "     ,"       "    " 

The  first  cost  of  steel  chimneys  for 
small  horse-power  is  less  than  that  of 
brick  chimneys  or  forced  combustion 
outfits. 

For  very  large  powers  it  costs  less  to 
install  the  blower  systems,  but  though 
we  have  no  operating  expenses  for  chim- 


67 

neys  we  have  the  cost  of  the  power  used 
to  operate  the  blower  and  economizer 
engine,  if  the  latter  is  used. 

We  are  told  that  compared  with  the 
cost  of  a  good  brick  chimney 

A  forced  draft  plant  costs  25  per  cent. 

of  the  brick  chimney; 
A  single  induced  draft  plant  costs  40 

per  cent,  of  the  brick  chimney ; 
A  double  induced  draft  plant  costs  50 
per  cent,  of  the  brick  chimney : 
but  that  depends  entirely  upon  the 
design  of  the  chimney. 
The  life  of  a  forced  draft  fan  having 
constant  use  is  said  to  be  about  fifteen 
years,  while  a  well  cared  for  steel  chim- 
ney lasts  from  20  to  25   years,  if  it  is 
kept  properly  painted  outside — the  inside 
being  protected  with  soot;  a  brick  chim- 
ney lasts  a  hundred  years. 

The  relative  areas  of  grate  surface  to 
boiler  heating  surface,  when  forced  com- 
bustion is  used,  should  be  decided  by  a 
careful  consideration  of  the  kind,  quality, 
and  quantity  of  the  fuel  to  be  burned. 


68 

"  It  has  been  claimed  by  the  advocates 
of  forced  draft  that  more  power  is  re- 
quired to  drive  the  fans*  owing  to  their 
having  to  deal  with  heated  gases;  this 
we  think  wef  can  prove  erroneous." 

Experience  has  shown  that  in  a  prop- 
erly designed  installation  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  maintain  an  average  vacuum 
of  more  than  2|-  inches  water  gauge  at 
the  fan  inlet,  the  temperature  of  the 
gases  to  be  dealt  with  being  about  450 
degrees  F. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  generally 
acknowledged  that  about  three  inches 
water  gauge  at  the  fan  discharge  is  nec- 
essary to  get  the  best  results  with  forced 
draft,  and  as  the  air  is  taken  from  the 
engine  room  its  temperature  may  be 
taken  at  80  degrees  F. 

*  More  for  induced  draft  fans. 

t  Ellis  and  Eaves  (Patent)  System  of  Induced  Draught* 


69 


If  the  supply  of  air  to  the  furnace  be* 
12  Ibs.  per  Ib.  fuel,  then  volume, 

12  Ibs.  at  32°  per  Ib.  of  fuel  is  150  cu.ft. 
18  Ibs.       do.         do.         do.     225    " 
24  Ibs.       do.         do.         do.     300    " 

The  volume   at   any   other   tempera- 
ture T  is 


xr          i  A  o^o 

V==  volume  at  88°  x 


+461.2 


TT 

=  V.- 


The  following  are  some  of  the  results  : 


Deg.  F. 
Tempera- 


Supply  of  air  in  Ibs  per  Ib.  of  fuel. 
12         |         18         |         24 


ture 

Vol.  of  gases  per  Ib.  of  fuel  in  cu.  ft. 

4640 

1551 

3275 

1136 

1704 

2500 

906 

1359 

1812 

1832 

697 

1046 

1395 

1472 

588 

882 

1176 

1112 

479 

718 

957 

752 

369 

553 

738 

572 

314 

471 

628 

392 

259 

389 

519 

212 

205 

307 

409 

104 

172 

258 

344 

68 

161 

241 

322 

32 

150 

225 

300 

*  Rankine,  Steam  Engine,  p.  286. 


70 

"W  =  coal  burned  in  a  given  furnace  per 

second. 
V0=  Volume  at  32°  F.  of  the  air  sup- 

plied per  Ib.  of  fuel. 
ra  =  Absolute  temperature  of  the  gas  dis- 

charged by  the  chimney. 
r0  =  Absolute  temperature  of  the  air  at 

32°  =  493.2°  F. 
r  =  Absolute    temperature   at   tempera- 

ture T. 
A  =  sectional  area  of  the  chimney  ;  then 

the  velocity  of  the  current  in  the 

chimney  in  feet  per  second  is 


Density,  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  =  D 

=  1^-  -  0.0807  + 


71 


Fig.  4. 
Steam  Blower. 


Eynoa-Evans  Co, 


s     I! 


Dsii 

s3i?lll 

-§go§oo 

<$•**'-  '•'• 


73 


sls<<«« 


g£o°2 
TP^TJ< 

S«*S 


,        .         ,=i  — OTTTirainOJ  — 

ti&iiplv  •  fe«f 


^1 


||  -  •  *  g^^ 


•onn       88eo«eS?3§3 

310ns     U  J     .tUtmO'B  A     d  d  d  d  d  d  e 


Usssssq 

I      d  d  d  d  d  d 


•aid  u,si3  ut 


oanssaad  ra-eaas  aSn^o  ,  ^^ 


a§  ui 


'I^oo  ^Cap  U 
pu«    qsB    jo    -auao 


iBJS  jo  •••!  j  'I)s  J8d  uq  UB 
auanq  IBOO  Ajp  jo  spunoj 


B J9do  :  -01 
'H  Janoq  J 


oo  o>  eo  t-  T*  n»  — 

ift  t-  t»  «O  —  «O  tO 

<M  -  W  .=.  CO  S  S 


-^  O  00  «O  OS  t>- CO 


•pasn  s 


•pasri  a 


ai  poq  i£q  padota A9p  -^ 


•(auiui       g.  >.  „ 
auo  raoj;  n«)  I«oo  jo  puix   g"  ^' 
I         CQ 


76 

Steam  jets  or  steam  blowers  are  means 
^by  which  draft  is  assisted  or  created,  but 
neither,  as  a  rule,  are  employed  without 
:a  chimney;  while  they  are  cheap  in  first 
cost  and  installation  they  are  expensive 
to  keep  in  repair  and  to  operate. 

Steam  blowers  under  grates  are  fre- 
quently used  in  connection  with  mechan- 
ical stokers,  also  under  boilers  whose 
-chimneys  do  not  furnish  the  desired  draft, 
and  which  boilers  have  become  of  insuf- 
ficient capacity  by  the  natural  growth  of 
a  plant. 

Steam  jets  are  used  in  chimney  flues 
for  like  reasons. 

Two  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers 
tested  by  the  writer: 

A — boiler  using  steam  blowers  under 
the  grates  in  connection  with  chimney 
draft, 

B — chimney  draft  alone,  resulted  as 
follows : 


77 

A  B 


Boiler  rated  Horse  Power  

90 

130 

Boiler  Horse  Power  Developed  . 

122.55 

121.91 

Equiv.  Evap.  from  and  at  2120 

per  Ib.  of  combustible  

10.76 

10.73 

(No.  2  anthracite  pea  coal  used  in  both  tests.) 

One  disadvantage  in  the  use  of  steam 
jets  or  blowers  is  that  just  so  much  more 
water  has  to  be  heated  in  the  chimney 
and  carried  up  out  of  it;  another  and 
more  serious  objection  is  the  large  amount 
of  carbonic  oxide,  hydrogen  and  marsh 
gas  formed. 

In  one  plant  the  writer  found  frequent 
explosions  on  the  opening  of  the  boiler 
furnace  door,  and  the  burning  of  the 
fireman's  arms  from  explosions  of  marsh 
gas  in  the  boiler;  the  explosions  were 
seen  to  extend  up  into  the  main  flue  to 
the  chimney. 

Again,  the  steam  required  to  run  or 
operate  the  steam  jets  or  blowers  is  large 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  steam 
made  under  the  boilers,  having  been 
given  (Trans.  A.  8.  M.  K  Vol.  XX)  as 
from  7.4  to  8.78  per  cent.,  and  the  rela- 


78 


tive  efficiency  of  centrifugal  fan  blower 
to  steam  jet  is  as  8  to  1. 

The  capacities  of  the  Steam-jet  Blow- 
ers and  Exhausters  made  by  L.  Schutte 
&  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  are: 


Size 

Quantity  of  air 

Diam.of  pipe,  inches 

No. 

per  hour  in 
cubic  feet 

Steam 

Air 

000 

1,000 

1 

1 

00 

2,000 

1 

n 

0 

4,000 

1 

2 

1 

6,000 

11 

n 

2 

12,000 

H 

3 

3 

18,000 

2 

3£ 

4 

24,000 

2 

4 

5 

30,000 

» 

5 

6 

36,000 

4 

6 

7 

42,000 

3 

6 

8 

48,000 

3 

7 

9 

54,000 

gl 

7 

10 

60,000 

8} 

8 

A  greater  rate  of  combustion  can  be 
obtained  with  the  centrifugal  blower  than 
with  a  steam  jet,  and  steam  in  the  ashpit 
reduces  the  tendency  of  the  coal  on  the 
grate  to  clinker  and  form  an  obstruction 


79 


Consumption  of  Steam  Blasts  Compared.* 


Per  cent,  of 

Coat 

Name  of 
blower. 

Per  cent*  of 
atr  openings 
in  grate. 

Pounds  of 
dry  coal 
burned  an 
hour  per  sq. 
ft.  of  grate. 

total  steam 
generated  in 
the  boilers 
that  is  re- 
quired to 
operate  the 

steam  blasts 

Rice. 

Young. 

11 

25.8 

11.1 

11 

17.9 

7.0 

«• 

Wilkinson. 

7 

27.0 

10.8 

Buckwheat. 

^  Young. 

11 

27.3 

10.8 

11 

16.7 

4.6 

26 

31.4 

8.9 

ft 

McClave.  . 

11 

16.4 

6.7 

11 

26.1 

9.3 

Wilkinson. 

7 

32.5 

7.8 

•• 

7 

45.4 

10.2 

"Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XVII.—  Whit  ham. 


Set.  No.  1 
.,      ,i    2 
4.     .,  3 
..      »   4 
"      ".5 

Rate  of  combustion  in  boiler,  24.3 
••      35.2 
"      ••             "                    "      14.2 
"      26.9 
«.      .<             „                    „      27.7 

21.2 
20.7 
8.3 
12. 
14. 

Blower, 
annular  slit 
33  1-32  holes 
1-16  in.  hole! 
X  In.       "    >•  Jet 
*-64  in.    "    J 

**Per  cent,  of  steam  made  required  to  operate  jet  or  blower 
(U.  S.  Bureau  of  St.  Eng.,  1890.) 

to  the  free  passage  of  the  air  necessary  to 
combustion. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that 
wherever  it  is  at  all  practicable  to  do  so, 
a  chimney,  or,  what  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred, chimneys  in  multiple  should  be 
used;  one  of  the  largest  contracting 
engineering  firms  who  formerly  were 
strong  advocates  of  forced  draft  are  now 
recommending  chimney  draft  first  for  all 
plants  with  which  they  have  to  do. 


80 

It  would  seem  that  for  the  great  ma- 
jority of  power  steam  plants,  better  re- 
turns (financially)  would  result  from 
natural  draft  produced  by  means  of,  not 
any  chimney,  but  by  means  of  a  chimney 
or  chimneys  designed  especially  for  each 
plant. 


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34  D'    VAN  NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S 

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OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE  VAN  NOSTRAND  SCIENCE  SERIES. 

No.  60.— STRENGTH  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  BRIDGE  MEM- 
BERS. By  S.  W.  Robinson,  C.E. 

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ING IMPURITIES,  hy  M.  N.  Haker. 

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Dotigald  Clerk.    Second  edition.    With  additional 
matter.    Edited  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.E. 

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No.  65.— POCKET  LOGARITHMS  TO  FOUR  PLACES  OP 
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No.  66.— DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINERY.     By    S.    P. 

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edition. 
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FORMULA."    By  P.  J.  Flynn. 
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edition,  revised,  with  additions  by  A.  R.  Wolff. 
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Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
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No.  71.— DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY.  By  John  Hopkinson, 
J.  N.  Shoolbred,  and  R.  E.  Day. 

No.  73.- TOPOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING.  By  George  J. 
Specht,  Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy,  John  B.  McMaster,  and 
H.  F.  Walling. 

No.  78.— SYMBOLIC  ALGEBRA;  OR,  THE  ALGEBRA  OP 
ALGEBRAIC  NUMBERS.  By  Prof.  W.  Cain. 

Ha  74.— TESTING  MACHINES  :  THEIR  HISTORY,  CON- 
STRUCTION, AND  USE.  By  Arthur  V.  Abbott. 

N<X  75.— EECENT  PROGRESS  IN  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINES.  Being  a  Supplement  to  Dynamo- 
Electric  Machinery.  By  Prof.  Sylvanus  P. 
Thompson. 

NO.  78.— MODERN  REPRODUCTIVE  GRAPHIC  PRO- 
CESSES. By  Lieut.  James  S=  Pettit,  U.S.A. 

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Measurements.  By  Arthur  Winslow. 

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No.  79.-THE  FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH,  By  Frank  a 
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Glenn  Brown. 


THE  VAN  NOSTRAND  SCIENCE  SERIES. 


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ACCURACY,  DELIVERY,  ETC.  Distinctive 
features  of  the  Worthington,  Kennedy,  Siemens, 
and  Hesse  meters.  By  Ross  E.  Browne. 

No.  82--THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER  BY  THE  USE 
OF  ANTISEPTICS.  By  Samuel  Bagster  Boul- 
ton,  C.  E. 

No.   83. -MECHANICAL    INTEGRATORS.       By   Prof.    Henry 

S.  H.  SHAW,  C.  E. 
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CONDUITS,   SEWERS,    ETC.      With  Tables.      By 

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Volson  Wood. 

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FOUND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.      By    Prof. 

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STRUCTION        OF       HELICOIDAL        OBLIQUE 

ARCHES.    By  John  L.  Culley,  C.  E. 
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their  Resistance.    By  P.  H.  Philbrick. 
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John  P.  Wisser,  U.  S.  A. 

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SCOPE.   By  Gen.  J.  G.  Barnard. 
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AND  SPIRIT.    By  Prof.  I.  O.  Baker. 
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Boverton  Redwood,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 
No.  93. -RECENT  PRACTICE  IN  THE  SANITARY  DRAINAGE 

OF  BUILDINGS.    With  Memoranda  on  the  Cost  of 

Plumbing   Work.      Second   edition,    revised.      By 

William  Paul  Gerhard,  C.  E. 
No.   94. -THE  TREATMENT  OF  SEWAGE.    By  Dr.  C.  Mey- 

mott  T\dy. 
No.  95. -PLATE  GIRDER  CONSTRUCTION.    By  Isami  Hiroi, 

C.  E.    2d  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
No.    96. -ALTERNATE    CURRENT    MACHINERY.      By    Gis- 

bert  Kapp,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.  E. 
No.  97.—  THE   DISPOSAL    OF    HOUSEHOLD  WASTES.    By 

W.  Paul  Gerhard,  Sanitary  Engineer. 
No.  98.— PRACTICAL  DYNAMO  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS. 

HOW  TO  WIND  FOR  ANY  OUTPUT.    By  Frederick 

Walker.    Fully  illustrated. 
No.    99-TRTPLE  -  EXPANSION    ENGINES    AND    ENGINE 

TRIALS.     By   Prof.    Osborne  Reynolds.     Edited, 
with  notes,  etc.,  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.  E. 


TUB  VAN  NOSTRAND  SCIENCE  SERIES. 

No.  100.— HOW  TO  BECOME  AN  ENGINEER,  or  the  Theo- 
retical and  Practical  Training  necessary  in  fitting 
for  the  duties  of  the  Civil  Engineer.  By  ProfT 
Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  101. — THE  SEXTANT,  and  other  Reflecting  Mathemati- 
cal Instruments.  With  Practical  Hints  for  their 
adjustment  and  use.  By  F.  R.  Brainard,  U.  8. 
Navy. 

No.  102.— THE  GALVANIC  CIRCUIT  INVESTIGATED 
MATHEMATICALLY.  By  Dr.  G.  S.  Ohm,  Ber- 
lin, 1827.  Translated  by  William  Francis.  With 
Preface  and  Notes  by  the  Editor,  Thomas  D. 
Lockwood,  M.I.E.E. 

No.  103.— THE  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF 
POTABLE  WATER.  With  Diagrams.  By  Geo. 
W.  Rafter. 

No.  104.-VAN  NOSTRAND'S  'TABLE  BOOK  FOR   CIVIL 

AND    MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS.     Compiled 

by  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton, 
No.  105.— DETERMINANTS.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study 

of,  with  Examples  and  Applications.    By  Prof. 

G.  A.  Miller. 

No.  106.— COMPRESSED  AIR.  Experiments  upon  the 
Transmission  of  Power  by  Compressed  Air  in 
Paris.  (Popp's  System.)  By  Prof.  A.  B.  W. 
Kennedy.  The  Transmission  and  Distribution  of 
Power  from  Central  Stations  by  Compressed  Air. 
By  Prof.  W.  C.  Unwin. 

No.  107. -A  GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FOR  SWING-BRIDGES. 
A  Rational  and  Easy  Graphical  Analysis  of  the 
Stresses  in  Ordinary  Swing-Bridges.  With  an 
Introduction  on  the  General  Theory  of  Graphical 
Statics.  By  Benjamin  F.  La  Rue.  4  Plates. 

No.  108.— SLIDE  VALVE  DIAGRAMS.  A  French  Method 
for  Constructing  Slide  Valve  Diagrams.  By  Lloyd 
Bankson,  B.S.,  Assfstant  Naval  Constructor,  U. 
S.  Navy.  8  Folding  Plates. 

No.  109.— THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELECTRIC  CUR- 
RENTS. Electrical  Measuring  Instruments.  By- 
James  Swinburne.  Meters  for  Electrical  Energy 
By  C.  H.  Wordingham.  Edited,  with  Preface," 
by  T.  Commerford  Martin.  Folding  Plate  and 
numerous  illustrations. 

No.  110.-TRANSITION  CURVES.  A  Field-Book  for  Engin- 
eers, containing  Rules  and  Tables  for  Laying 
out  Transition  Curves.  By  Walter  G.  Fox,  C.E. 

No.  111.— GAS-LIGHTING  AND  GAS-FITTING.  Specifica- 
tions and  Rules  for  Gas-Piping.  Notes  on  the 
advantages  of  Gas  for  Cooking  and  Heating,  and 
Useful  Hints  to  Gas  Consumers.  Second  edition- 
rewritten  and  enlarged.  By  Win.  Paul  Gterbarct 
C.  E. 

Ne.  112.— A  PRIMER  ON  THE  CALCULUS.  By  E.  Sherman 
Gould,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 


THE  VAN  NOSTRAXD  SCTEXCE  SERIES. 

No.  113.— PHYSICAL  PKOBLEMS  and  tbeir  Solution.  By  A. 
Bourgougnon,  formerly  Assistant  at  Bellevne  Hos- 
pital. 

No.  114.— MANUAL  OF  THE  SLIDE  RULE.  By  F.  A.  Halsey, 
of  the  American  Machinist. 

No.  115.— TRAVERSE  TABLES  showing  the  difference  of  Lati- 
tude and  Departure  for  distances  between  1  and  100 
and  for  Angles  to  Quarter  Degrees  between  1  degree 
and  90  degrees.  (Reprinted  from  Scribner's  Pocket 
Table  Book.) 

No.  116.— WORM  AND  SPIRAL  GEARING.  Reprinted  from 
"American  Machinist."  By  F.  A.  Halsey. 

No.  117.— PRACTICAL  HYDROSTATICS  AND  FORMULAS' 
with  -Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  By  E.  Sherman 
Gould,  Mem.  A.  S.  C.  E. 

No.  118.— TREATMENT  OF  SEPTIC  SEWAGE,  with  Tables. 
By  George*  W.  Rafter,  Mem.  A.  S.  C.  E. 

No.  119.— LAY-OUT  OF  CORLISS  VALVE  GEARS  with  Fold- 
ing Plates  and  Diagrams.  By  Saiiford  A.  Moss,  M. 
S.,  Ph.  D. 

No.  120.— ART  OF  GENERATING  GEAR  TEETH.  By  Howard 
A.  Coombs.  With  Figures  Diagrams  and  Folding 
Plates.  Reprinted  from  the  "American  Machinist.'1'' 

No.  121.— CURRENT  PRACTICE  IN  GAS  ENGINE  DESIGN. 
By  H.  Lee  Koenig  and  G.  W.  Rice,  with  Folding 
Plates. 


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